Early years and
personal life:
Ayub Khan was born on May 14, 1907, in Haripur British India, in the village of Rehana near the Haripur District of North-West
Frontier Province. He was a Pashtun Pathan of the Tareen tribe. He was the
first child of the second wife of Mir Dad Khan Tareen, who was a Risaldar-Major (the senior most non-commissioned
rank) in Hodson's Horse, a
cavalry regiment of the pre-independence Indian Army.
For his basic education, he was enrolled in a school in Sarai Saleh, which was
about four miles from his village and used to go to school on a mule's back.
Later he was moved to a school in Haripur, where he started living with his
grandmother. He enrolled at Aligarh Muslim
University in 1922, but did not complete his studies there, as he
was accepted into the Royal
Military Academy Sandhurst.
Khan’s son Gohar Ayub Khan was Pakistan’s Foreign Minister
in the Nawaz Sharif government. Gohar’s son and Ayub’s grandson Omar Ayub Khan was Pakistan’s Minister of State
for Finance. Gohar Ayub Khan and Omar Ayub Khan are politicians of Hazara.
Military career:
Ayub Khan did well at Sandhurst and
was given an officer's commission in the British Indian Army
on 2 February, 1928 and then joined the 1st Battalion of the 14th Punjab Regiment
Sherdils, later known as 5th Punjab Regiment. During World War II, he served as a captain
and later as a major on the Burma front. Following the war, he
joined the fledgling Pakistani Army as
the 10th ranking senior officer (his Pakistan Army number was 10. He was
promoted to Brigadier and commanded a brigade in Waziristan and then in 1948 was sent with the
local rank of Major General to East Pakistan (present day Bangladesh as General Officer Commanding of 14th
Infantry division responsible for the whole East Wing of Pakistan, for which
non-combatant service he was awarded the Hilal-i-Jurat. He returned to West
Pakistan in November 1949 as Adjutant General of the Army and then was briefly
Deputy Commander-in-Chief.
Chief of Army Staff:
Ayub Khan was made Commander-in-Chief
of the Pakistan Army on January 17, 1951, succeeding General Sir Douglas Gracey, thus becoming the first native
Pakistani general to hold that position. Therefore, he superseded two of his
seniors, Maj Gen Muhammad Akbar Khan
and Maj Gen N.A.M. Raza. Ayub Khan was promoted to C-in-C only due to the death
of Maj Gen Iftikhar Khan, who
was nominated as the first native C-in-C, but unfortunately died in an
air-crash enroot to his C-in-C training in the UK. Iskandar Mirza, Secretary of
Defence, was instrumental in Ayub's promotion, commencing a relationship in
which Mirza became Governor General of the Dominion of Pakistan and later
President of Pakistan, when it became a republic on March 23, 1956. The events
surrounding his appointment set the precedent for a Pakistani general being
promoted out of turn, ostensibly because he was the least ambitious of the
Generals and the most loyal. It was only 3 months before the end of his tenure
as Commander-in-Chief that Ayub Khan deposed his mentor, Iskandar Mirza,
Pakistan's President, in a military coup, after Mirza had declared Martial Law
and made Ayub Martial Law commander..
Defence Minister:
He
would later go on to serve in the second cabinet (1954) of Muhammad Ali Bogra
as Defence Minister, and when Iskander Mirza declared martial law on October 7, 1958, Ayub Khan was
made its chief martial law
administrator. Both Nawab Amir Mohammad Khan
and Sandhurst trained General Wajid Ali Khan Burki
were instrumental in Ayub Khan's Rise to power, until today the three families
retain adjoining houses in Islamabad. This would be the first of many instances
in the history of Pakistan
of the military becoming directly involved in politics.
Martial Law administrator:
On October 7, 1958, President Iskander Mirza abrogated
the Constitution and declared Martial Law in the country. This was the first of
many military regimes to mar Pakistan's history. With this step, the
Constitution of 1956 was abrogated, ministers were dismissed, Central and
Provincial Assemblies were dissolved and all political activities were banned.
General
Muhammad Ayub Khan, the then Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, became the
Chief Martial Law Administrator. The parliamentary system in Pakistan came to
end.
Ayub khan as a martial law administrator:
He
removed the post of governor general and announced the new post as president of
Pakistan.
President of Pakistan:
Within
three weeks of assuming charge on October 27, 1958, General Ayub khan forced
Sikander mirza to resign with the post of Governor General and then he became
the first president of Pakistan.
Ayub Kahn’s Initial Reforms:
Ayub
khan used his authority and made some reforms in the country.
1: He Improved law and order.
2: He made new capital of Pakistan (Islamabad).
3: He made Price control list.
4: He took steps to eradicate the smuggling.
5: He asked to return black money.
Ayub’s Land reforms:
Ayub
khan announced
Land reforms: "no person to hold more than 500 acres of irrigated or 1000
acres of unirrigated, with minor exceptions relating to existing land-owners,
and the land thus released would be distributed to tenants and other deserving
claimants; landlords would be paid compensations for resumed land in the form
of heritable and transferable 4 per cent bonds, redeemable in twenty-five
years, on a fixed scale according to the number of unit owned; existing tenants
on such land would be given the opportunity to buy it on installments spread
over twenty-five years, and special consideration would be given to tenants in
congested areas. All tenants would have security of tenure: compensation would
be paid for legal ejectment and an embargo placed on rent increases and illegal
exactions in the shape of fees, free labor or services. The division of holdings
below an economic level would be forbidden and provision made for the
compulsory consolidation of already fragmented holdings…"
Ayub’s industrial reforms:
Ayub
Khan's era is known for the industrialization in the country. He created an environment
where the private sector was encouraged to establish medium and small-scale
industries in Pakistan. This opened up avenues for new job opportunities and
thus the economic graph of the country started rising.
Ayub’s Educational reforms:
Ayub Khan tried to raise the education standards of
the country by introducing educational reforms. He was the first Pakistani
ruler who attempted to bring in land reforms but the idea was not implemented
properly.
He
banned student unions, he offers to build many technical, agricultural and
commercial schools.
He
made scholarship programs for students, he made student laws.
He
established training centers for teachers.etc
Ayub established Family Law’s:
Ayub Khan introduced the Muslim Family
Laws through an Ordinance on March 2, 1961 under which unmitigated polygamy was abolished, consent of the current
wife was made mandatory for a second marriage, and brakes were also placed on
the practice of instant divorce where men would divorce women by saying "I
divorce you" three times. The Arbitration Councils set up under the law in
the urban and rural areas were to deal with cases of
(a) Grant of
sanction to a person to contract a second marriage during the subsistence of a
marriage.
(b)
Reconciliation of a dispute between a husband and a wife.
(c) Grant
maintenance to the wife and children.
Ayub’s new political structural reforms:
P.O.D.O &
E.B.D.O :
In
March 1959, the Martial Law administration published the Public Offices
(Disqualification) Order (PODO) patterned after the now defunct—and often
misused—PRODA law that provided for public office holders found guilty by a
two-person tribunal to be disqualified from holding public office for up to
fifteen years. Realizing that PODO deliberations can be lengthy and does not
include people who were members of legislatures—only those who held public
office—another order, the Elective Bodies (Disqualification) Order (EBDO) was
created. Three tribunals were created to inquire into allegations of misconduct
as referred to them by the government. Unlike PODO, the person appearing before
the EBDO tribunal was not afforded the assistance of counsel and was required
to appear personally. The purpose of EBDO clearly was a summary cleansing of
the country’s political landscape of all those against whom even a slightest
charge of misconduct could be investigated. Persons convicted o EBDO
investigation were required to retire from public life until 31st December 1966
and make good any loss to the national exchequer that their actions might have
caused. A “relaxation” in the EBDO proceedings was that it allowed for the
possibility of voluntary retirement (until 31st December 1966) in which case
the inquiry against the public official was to be dropped.
While definite
figures do not exist, In 1960, in East Pakistan alone, as many as 3000 people
seemed to have faced this regulation (perhaps 6000 or more overall)—majority of
whom either opted to retire or were disqualified (i.e. EBDO-ed). Evidence
suggests that majority of the people simply chose to retire rather than face
the difficult questions of an EBDO tribunal. Thus, in a fairly systematic and
complete fashion, the Martial Law administration cleared the political field
for any likely opposition to the Presidents future ambitions.
Ayub’s basic democracy system (B,D system):
On the eve of the first anniversary of the
"Revolution," President Ayub Khan has promulgated an ordinance for
setting up "basic democracies," or small units of local
self-government in the country. There will be around 120000 such units, each
representing from 1000 to 15000 citizens. "Democracy has brought to the
very doorstep of the people," claims President Ayub in his speech today,
"making it possible for them to know its real meaning in
terms of managing and developing their village or mohalla as they would manage and develop their own home or
family. Indeed for the first time in the history of Pakistan, our people
will be able to elect as their representatives men and women whom they know
from personal knowledge to be good, honest and competent."
The military regime was not shown any inclination of lifting ban
from the political parties, and the elections for the basic democracies were
held on a non-party basis.
Indus Water treaty:
After Independence, problems between the
two countries arose over the distribution of water. Rivers flow into Pakistan
territory from across India. In 1947, when Punjab was divided between the two
countries, many of the canal head-works remained with India. The division of
Punjab thus created major problems for irrigation in Pakistan.
On April 1,
1948, India stopped the supply of water to Pakistan from every canal flowing
from India to Pakistan. Pakistan protested and India finally agreed on an
interim agreement on May 4, 1948. This agreement was not a permanent solution;
therefore, Pakistan approached the World Bank in 1952 to help settle the
problem permanently. Negotiations were carried out between the two countries
through the offices of the World Bank. It was finally in Ayub Khan's regime
that an agreement was signed between India and Pakistan in September 1960. This
agreement is known as the Indus Water Treaty.
This treaty
divided the use of rivers and canals between the two countries. Pakistan
obtained exclusive rights for the three western rivers, namely Indus, Jhelum
and Chenab. And India retained rights to the three eastern rivers, namely Ravi,
Beas and Sutluj. The treaty also guaranteed ten years of uninterrupted water
supply. During this period Pakistan was to build huge dams, financed partly by
long-term World Bank loans and compensation money from India. Three
multipurpose dams, Warsak, Mangla and Tarbela were built. A system of eight
link canals was also built, and the remodeling of existing canals was carried
out. Five barrages and a gated siphon were also constructed under this treaty.
Presidential election and restoration of democracy
(1960):
1960’s Presidential Elections
were held on the simple formula of referendum, 95.6% of all BD members have
said yes to the question: Do you have confidence in President Field Marshall
Muhammad Ayub Khan, Hilal-e-Pakistan, Hilal-e-Jurat?
The victory has
also provided Ayub Khan the authority to proceed with the framing of
constitution for the country.
Ayub Khan takes oath as the 1st
"elected" President of Pakistan.
Pakistani space program:
President Ayub Khan, who was very close to Dr. Abdus Salam, established Pakistan's National
Space Agency, Space
and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) on September 16, 1961. Ayub Khan also
appointed Dr. Abdus Salam as its head. It was Ayub Khan's administration when National
Aeronautics and Space Administration began training of Pakistani
scientists and engineers in the NASA's headquarters. President Ayub Khan was
eager to make Pakistan as space power, that is why he appointed a noted aeronautical engineer
and military scientist, Air Mar. Gen. W. J. M. Turowicz as Pakistan's Rocket Program
head. Gen. W. J. M. Turowicz
efforts led Pakistan to developed ballistic missiles series by its own in the
future. General W. J. M. Turowicz had led a series of Rehbar Sounding Rockets
fired from Pakistani soil. However, after Ayub Khan's removal from office the
Space program was frozen for more than 2 decades.
Development of Constitution of 1962:
With the aim of investigating the reasons
of failure of the parliamentary system in Pakistan, and to make recommendations
for a new constitution, Ayub Khan appointed a Constitution Commission under the
supervision of Justice Shahab-ud-din. After a number of considerations, the
Commission submitted its report on May 6, 1961. Ayub Khan was not satisfied
with the report and had it processed through various committees. As a result
the Constitution, which was promulgated on March 1, and enforced on June 8,
1962, was entirely different from the one recommended by the Shahab-ud-din
Commission.
The Constitution
of 1962 consisted of 250 Articles, which were divided into 12 Parts and three
Schedules. It advocated presidential form of government with absolute powers
vested in the President. The President was to be a Muslim not less than 35
years of age. The term of the President was for five years and nobody could
hold the post for more than two consecutive terms. The President was the head
of the state as well as the head of the Government. The President had the power
to appoint Provincial Governors, Federal Ministers, Advocate General, Auditor
General and Chairmen and Members of various administrative commissions. As the
Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of Pakistan, the appointment of the
chiefs of the forces was also his duty.
The Constitution
of 1962 provided for a unicameral legislature. The National Assembly was to
consist of 156 members, including six women. The Eighth Amendment later
increased this number to 218. Principle of parity was retained and seats were
distributed equally between the two wings of the country. Principle of Basic
Democracy was introduced for the first time in the country and the system of
indirect elections was presented. Only 80,000 Basic Democrats were given the
right to vote in the presidential elections. The Eighth Amendment later
increased this number to 120,000. Half of them were to be from the Eastern
Wing, the rest from the Western Wing of the country.
According to the
Constitution of 1962, the Executive was not separated from the Legislature. The
President exercised veto power in the legislative affairs and could even veto a
bill passed by the National Assembly with a two-third majority. He had the
power to issue ordinances when the Assembly was not in session. The ordinance
needed the approval of the National Assembly within 48 days of its first
meeting or 108 days after its promulgation. However, if the President enforced
emergency in the country, which according to the constitution was within his
jurisdictions, then the ordinances needed no approval from the legislative
body.
The President
had the power to dissolve the National Assembly. Federal form of government was
introduced in the country with most of the powers reserved for the Central
Government. There was a federal list of subjects over which the provinces had
no jurisdiction. Principle of One Unit for West Pakistan was maintained and the
number of seats for Punjab was curtailed to 40 percent in the Western Wing for
the initial five years. Provincial Governors were to enjoy the same position in
the provinces, which the President was to enjoy in the center.
Islamic clauses
were included in the Constitution. These could not be challenged in any court
of law. The state was named the Republic of Pakistan, but the first amendment
added the word "Islamic" to the name. The word "Islam" and
not "Quran and Sunnah" was used in the Islamic clauses to give a
liberal touch to the Constitution. The Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology was
introduced whose job was to recommend to the government ways and means to
enable Muslims to live their lives according to the teachings of Islam.
The Constitution
of 1962 was a written Constitution upholding the fundamental rights of the
citizens. Under the Constitution, the Judiciary had little independence and the
appointment of the Chief Justices and Judges of the Supreme and High Courts was
in the hands of the President. The President also had the power to remove a
judge after an inquiry on misconduct or on the basis of mental or physical
illness.
Both Urdu and Bengali
were made the national languages of Pakistan and English was declared as the
official language of the country for the first ten years. The Constitution was
flexible in nature and could be amended by a two-third majority in the National
Assembly and with the approval of the President. In its short life of seven
years, eight amendments were made in the Constitution.
When Ayub Khan
handed over power to Yahya Khan, Martial Law was enforced in the country and
the Constitution was terminated on March 25, 1969.
Second Presidential election (1965) against Fatima Jinnah:
In 1964, Ayub
confident in his apparent popularity and seeing deep divisions within the
political opposition, called for Presidential elections.
He was however taken by surprise when despite a brief
disagreement between the five main opposition parties ( a preference for a
former close associate of Ayub Khan General Azam Khan as candidate was
dropped), the joint opposition agreed on supporting the respected and popular Fatima Jinnah, the sister of the founder of
Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Despite Jinnah's considerable popularity and public disaffection with
Ayub's government, Ayub won with 64% of the vote in a bitterly contested
election on January 2, 1965. The election did not conform to international
standards and journalists. It is widely held, as subsequent historians and
analysts almost uniformly say, that the elections were rigged in favor of Ayub
Khan.
Indo-Pak War 1965:
At 3:00 AM on September 6, 1965, without a
formal declaration of war, Indians crossed the international border of West
Pakistan and launched a three-pronged offensive against Lahore, Sialkot and
Rajasthan. There was a fierce tank battle on the plains of Punjab. The domestic
Indo-Pak conflict transformed into an international conflict and raised Super Power
concerns.
The U. S. suspended military supplies to both sides during the
Indo-Pak War. Both the Soviet Union and the United States took a united stand
to curtail the conflict within the boundaries of the Sub-continent from
escalating into a global conflict. China threatened to intervene and offered
military support to Pakistan. It was to keep China away from this conflict that
both the Soviet Union and the United States pressured the U. N. to arrange for
an immediate ceasefire. The main diplomatic effort to stop the fighting was
conducted under the auspices of the United Nations and a ceasefire came into
effect on September 23, 1965.
The Soviet
Union, which had remained neutral while India and Pakistan were at war, played
broker at Tashkent afterwards. A Soviet Government communique formally
announced on December 8 that the Indian Prime Minister Shastri and the
Pakistani President Ayub would meet at Tashkent on January 4, 1966.
The Tashkent
Conference lasted from January 4 to January 10. The Soviet Premier Kosygin
earned praise as a peacemaker. The main achievement of the Conference was to
withdraw, no later than February 25, 1966, all armed personnel to the position
held before August 5, 1964.
Historical address of Ayub khan (6 sep 1965):
"My dear countrymen, in this hour
of trial you have to remain absolutely calm. You must know that each one of you
has to perform a supreme duty which demands complete dedication and devotion…
Be prepared to strike and to strike hard; for the evil which has raised its
head against your borders is doomed to destruction. Go forward and meet the
enemy. God is with you..."
Tashqand treaty:
The
Soviet Union, which had remained neutral when India and Pakistan went to war in
September 1965, played the broker afterwards at Tashkent. A Soviet Government
communiquŽ formally announced on December 8 that the Indian Prime Minister Lal
Bahadur Shastri and the Pakistani President Muhammad Ayub Khan would meet at
Tashkent on January 4, 1966. The Tashkent Conference lasted from January 4 to
January 10. Largely as due to the efforts of Soviet Premier Kosygin, India and
Pakistan signed a declaration that is known as the Tashkent Declaration.
The
significant clauses of this agreement were:
|
1. The Prime Minister of India and the
President of Pakistan agree to make all efforts to establish good relations
between India and Pakistan in accordance with the United Nations Charter.
They affirm to renounce the use of force in the settlement of their disputes.
2. The President of Pakistan and the
Indian Prime Minister agree to withdraw, no later than February 25, 1966, all
armed personnel to the position held before August 5, 1964.
3. Both India and Pakistan agree to follow
the principle of non-interference in their affairs and will discourage the
use of any propaganda against each other.
4. Both the countries also agree to reopen
normal diplomatic functioning and to return of the High Commissioners of both
the countries to their posts.
5. Measures towards the restoration of economic
and trade relations, communications, as well as cultural exchanges between
the two countries were to be taken. Measures were to be taken to implement
the existing agreements between Pakistan and India.
6. Prisoners of war would be repatriated.
7. Discussions would continue relating to
the problem of refugees and eviction of illegal immigrants. Both sides will
create conditions that will prevent the exodus of the people.
|
 |
Decline of Ayub:
News of the Tashkent Declaration shocked the people
who were expecting something quite different. Things further worsened as Ayub
Khan refused to comment and went into seclusion instead of taking the people
into confidence over the reasons for signing the agreement. Demonstrations and
rioting erupted at various places throughout the country.
It was
the difference over Tashkent Declaration, which eventually led to the removal
of Z. A. Bhutto from Ayub's government, who later on launched his own party,
called the Pakistan People's Party.
Despite the fact
that Ayub Khan was able to satisfy the misgiving of the people, there is no
doubt that the Tashkent Declaration greatly damaged the image of Ayub Khan, and
became one of the many factors that led to his downfall.
Foreign Policy:
As President, Ayub Khan allied
Pakistan with the global U.S. military alliance against the Soviet Union. This in turn led to major economic
aid from the U.S. and European nations, and the industrial sector of Pakistan
grew very rapidly, improving the economy, but the consequences of cartelization
included increased inequality in the distribution of wealth.
It was under Ayub Khan that the capital was moved from Karachi to Rawalpindi, in anticipation of the construction
of a new capital: Islamabad. In 1960, Khan's
government signed the Indus Waters Treaty
with archrival India to resolve disputes regarding the sharing
of the waters of the six rivers in the Punjab Dobb that flow between the two countries.
Khan's administration also built a major network of irrigation canals,
high-water dams and thermal and hydroelectric power stations.
Despite the Indus Waters Treaty, Ayub maintained icy
relations with India. He established close political and military ties with
Communist China, exploiting its differences with Soviet
Russia and its 1962 war with India. To this day, China remains a strong
economic, political and military ally of Pakistan.
Criticisms against Ayub Khan:
Government corruption and nepotism, in addition to an environment of
repression of free speech and political freedoms increased unrest. Criticisms
of his sons and family's personal wealth increased especially his son's actions
after his father's election in the allegedly rigged 1965 Presidential elections
against Fatima Jinnah is a subject of criticism by many writers. Gohar Ayub, it
is said led a victory parade right into the heartland of Opposition territory
in Karachi, in a blatantly provocative move and the civil administration’s
failure to stop the rally led to a fierce clashes between opposing groups with
many locals being killed. Gohar Ayub also faced criticisms during that time on
questions of family corruption and cronyism through his business links with his
father-in-law retired Lt. General Habibullah Khan
Khattak. One Western commentator in 1969 estimated Gohar Ayub's
personal wealth at the time at $4 million dollars, while his family's wealth
was put in the range of $10–$20 million dollars.
Ayub began to lose both power and popularity. On one
occasion, while visiting East Pakistan, there was a failed attempt to
assassinate him, though this was not reported in the press of the day.
Ayub was persuaded by underlings to award himself the Nishan-e-Pakistan, Pakistan's highest
civil award, on the grounds that to award it to other heads of state he should
have it himself and also promoted himself to the rank of Field Marshal. He was
to be Pakistan's second Field Marshal, if the first is regarded as Field
Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck
(1884–1981), supreme commander of military forces in India and Pakistan in the
lead-up to independence in 1947.
Aggravating an already bad situation, with increasing
economic disparity in the country under his rule, hoarding and manipulation by
major sugar manufacturers resulted in the controlled price of 1 kg sugar
to be increased by 1 rupee and the whole population took to the
streets. As Ayub's popularity plummeted, he decided to give up rule.
In 1971 when war broke out, Ayub Khan was in West Pakistan and did not comment on the events
of the war. He died in 1974.
Conclusion:
The characteristics of Ayub’s era
discussed above show some successful decisions and some not so successful
decisions of Ayub. In my opinion Ayub was a man of great determination but the
he was lacking the quality of ‘listening to others’. He always did what he
thought better in the light of his own experience.
His regime can be characterized with some developments but he couldn’t
maintain the national harmony among the distant provinces of Pakistan, i.e.
East Pakistan and West Pakistan.
References:
www.understandingpakistan.com
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